We explore the role of the function $a+2^x$ and its generalisations to higher number classes, in supplying complexity bounds for the provably computable functions across a broad spectrum of (arithmetically based) theories. We show how the resulting “fast growing” subrecursive hierarchy forges direct links between proof theory and various combinatorial independence results – e.g. Goodstein’s Theorem (for Peano Arithmetic) and Friedman’s Miniaturised Kruskal Theorem for Labelled Trees (for $Pi^1_1$-CA$_0$).

Ref: Schwichtenberg and Wainer, “Proofs and Computations”, Persp. in Logic, CUP 2012.